The Political Philosophy of Leslie Barclay
Introduction
It would be wonderful if all humans could live the bulk of their lives from birth to death in a state of peaceful happiness, with good fortune, good health and joyful relationships with family, friends and neighbors. When one speaks of utopia, it is conditions such as these that one envisions. Mindful that utopias are frought with dangers in that they enter into dubious ends and means tradeoffs that engender moral and political straightjackets, I prefer a gentle society that tends rather to enable human happiness instead of forcing it upon people.
I think that it is important to begin with the individual and the family as the focus and the building blocks of a social, economic and political philosophy. Adopt a micro to macro perspective rather than vice versa. In this way one can better consider the motivations and values of the average individual (of course, keeping in mind that exceptional individuals always exist). We must not lose sight of the individual, nor must we ignore the greater whole.
The initial driving questions should be:
How can we design the rules governing a society in such a way that they enhance;
* an individual's happiness
* an individuals prosperity
* an individual's social behavior and ultimately love
* an individual's educational development and greater wisdom
* an individual's environmental behavior
Justice
Aristotle observed that if all men were friends, justice would not be necessary. If we were all friends with a good dose of personal and social responsibility, anarchy might even work. This not being the case though, justice adminstered through the state is necessary. Politics is the means by which justice is served through the state.
Genuine human happiness for all can only occur within a society that is just. So what is exactly is justice? Several good definitions follow:
1. Justice is that which concerns fairness or equity, often divided into three parts: procedural justice, concerned with fair methods of making decisions and settling disputes; distributive justice, concerned with the fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of society; and corrective justice, concerned with correcting wrongs and harms through compensation or retribution (from National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans, NHMRC, 2001).
and
2. In the Hebrew scriptures, justice is a virtue by which people carry out the demands of a relationship, whether it is with god or other people. These demands differed, depending on the nature of the relationship. In the New Testament, faith in Jesus Christ puts the Christian in special relationship with him. The 'just' believers will honour this relationship in the way that they live. Through justice, people respect the rights of other individuals and groups e.g. the right to a decent standard of living, the right to be educated, the right to live in peace and freedom.
(from: www.mn.catholic.org.au/about/glossary_AM.htm
and finally, most simply
3. Justice, broadly defined, is a state in which everyone begins equal, has equal opportunity to succeed and has certain social rights that must be universally protected independent of social standing.
I begin my political philosophy with the view that our Canadian society, which is so often held internationally as a model, is in fact rife with injustice and that this is the greatest barrier to enabling greater happiness. While we are certainly more just than the typical African or Middle Easern nation, we still have a lot to do. Consider this. Is it just that:
* pornography and in particular child pornography flourishes?
* physical, sexual and mental abuse of children and adults (primarily women) flourishes?
* criminals repeatedly are released from prison only to commit crimes (often murder and rape) again?
* youth and native suicide rates have skyrocketed in recent years?
* innocent and helpless unborn babies are murdered in the womb in growing numbers with almost no
one to defend them?
* there are many people who would like a job that challenges them and values their education,
experience and skills, but are relegated to unemployment, underemployment or demeaning
employment?
* the average taxpayer must work on average half the year to pay all the taxes from various levels of
government?
* native Canadians in large numbers should live in poverty and dependency mired in alcohol and
abuse?
* family breakup and the resultant mental pain suffered by the children is so common?
* half of older teenagers should suffer from an STD because they engage in casual sex?
* drug and alcohol abuse is rampant in society and that drug gangs increasingly stir up trouble for the
police and society in general?
* various minority groups continue to be unfairly discriminated against?
* tax dollars should be wasted and corruption go unpunished?
* poverty in Canada seems to become increasingly entrenched with the comcomitant homelessness and
hunger?
* gambling is the latest addiction to inflict the masses, increasingly to the benefit of government general
revenue coffers?
* there are many sick people in Canada who cannot get the healing they need, but are denied the
freedom to go outside the government system for the treatment they require?
There is more and all this is only Canada. Expand the perspective to the whole world and it is even scarier. But, lets not fall prey to the holier than thou attitude when there remains so much injustice in Canada even now. Lets focus on the root causes of all this misery in view of eliminating them and establishing the rules and institutions that will not give rise to further injustice. A just society can be created by establishing just institutions and just social and economic practices. The failure of social justice, on the other hand, is a disease that affects not only those in poverty, but all of us.
Politics and the State
Justice requires the establishment of a state. The role of the state is to protect its citizens, enforce its laws and maintain social justice. The state leads to the development, for better or for worse, of politics. Politics should be an open and participatory device for solving problems and hence securing justice. It ought further to enable individuals to live a good life in harmony with society, technology and the environment. That government is best which best enables its citizens to pursue and realize the ends which comprise a good life rather than fostering the withdrawn and excessive selfish pursuit and realization of greed and sensual indulgence.
Political design and analysis should focus on the impact upon and interaction among individuals, society, technology and the invironment,particularly how power, wealth and freedom is distributed and used.
The political culture and structure ought to foster:
1) virtue: in particular a) consciousness b) selflessness c) moderation and d) doubt
2) choice (supported by virtue): in particular diversity, not conformity, supported by freedom and
responsibility
3) community: in particular interdependence, friendship, peace and the public good
4) democratic citizenship: in particular, disinterested individualism and participation
5) wealth: in particular, enough wealth, equitably distributed and pursued in moderation, to ensure
survival and comfort necessary for the good life.
6) environmental stewardship -- facilitate sustainable economic and environmental behavior
Benjamin Franklin believed that we should practice daily 13 virtues:
industry, frugality, temperance, silience, order, resolution, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity and humility.
Wouldn't it be nice if our political culture could encourage more people to do likewise.
Once we abandon anarchy and agree to the establishment of a state with all its various political rules and establishments, we give rise to many unintended consequences. A rule founded on altruistic beliefs can result in outcomes that do not in fact benefit the persons they were intended to benefit. The tragedy of American single welfare moms in the 1980s who had more children than they could raise because welfare paid them in effect to have babies immediately comes to mind. Therefore, it is important to pause and consider before establishing new rules and establishments and even go further and consider existing rules and establishments in light of the following.
PRIMARY IDEALS AND BELIEFS: (used to assess public policy)
A. Philosophy and Purpose:
1. A truly just society is one in which all citizens are political and economic 'haves'; a system of
popular political democracy is in place and genuine poverty is eliminated. (Inequality will remain
but it will be of 'haves' -- some will have more and some less; it will be a difference in degree, not
kind and public policy can decide what degree of this inequality it deems appropriate and how to
manage this; ideally a predominantly middle class society is best, with few individuals at the
extreme and the gap between these extremes is small.)
2. Centralized government is an evil, albeit a necessary one, because it is the delegation or
assumption of powers over individuals citizens by a group, large or small. It is a reduction of
the individual for the sake of the mass and its primary method of operation is elitist coersion;
it fosters apathy and non-participation. We must be wary of its tendencies and its dangers.
B. Design:
3. Power and political decision-making should be highly decentralized, visible and controlled as
much as possible at the community level and by those whom the decisions affect. This best
limits the powers of government and fosters self-government (government by the people, not
the elites); only when the benefits of centralized authority far outweight the benefits of local
or community-based authority should government be centralized (such as instances of defence
and foreign policy). There are times when policy should be developed centrally for purposes of
consistency, but implementation can be local. Also to be decided is whether the citzenry wishes
a decentralized representative or direct democracy or what mixture of the two.
4. Government intervention (in the form of rules and regulations, taxes, funding and services) is
necessary because of human imperfection and the tendency towards selfishness and inequality
but it should be limited and effective. Attention must be paid to its costs and consequences
(particularly the incentives engendered by government policy) and effectiveness evaluated in
light of belief #1 and the following: it must support and encourage individual responsibility,
self-reliance and initiative; the maintenance of two-parent families, neighborhood and community
and the societal self-support and duty therein; social and environmental responsibility;
moderation in action at all three levels (individual, society and the environment). These virtues
and institutions that support and encourage them are necessary for justice (peace and freedom).
The primary message of government should be "People, govern yourselves."
5. Private property, widely distributed and protected, is a cornerstone of an economically just
society and underlies economic and political freedom, social and environmental responsibility.
Upon this foundation, free trade occurring within a mostly free market with limited government
intervention, best creates and initially distributes wealth.
6. The public good. In order to balance the force of private property and to enhance equality and
participation, the public good (not necessarily government) must be attended to as forcefully
as private property is secured.
THE PRIMARY ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT; (at federal, provincial and local levels)
1. Limit excessive inequality of power and wealth (thereby securing economic and social justice).
2. Enforce laws and regulations strictly and fairly through the police and courts (thereby limiting
violence and crime in the society and securing personal security and freedom).
3. Provide for all citizens to be educated at the school of their choice (thereby ensuring a skilled
and educated population). Public education must combat ignorance and assist in the develop-
ment of virtue and wisdom.
4. Provide for fire protection, construction and maintenance of streets and sewers, and military
defence (thereby creating and maintaining a decent physical infrastructure that will enable a
productive and efficient economy and healthy and secure populace).
5. Ensure that the primary health needs of all citizens are met (thereby ensuring a healthy and
psychologically secure population at all ages).
6. Ensure that the primary needs of the less fortunate in the society are met through a limited
welfare system and the support of private charity (thereby eliminating 'have-nots' from the
society).
7. Support the public good (and encourage disinterested participation in it by the public). The
public good includes parks, libraries, radio, recreation and entertainment, and schools.
OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES:
1. Government spending should not exceed 40% of the nationall economy. 30% to 40% is best,
with the actual number chosen by the citizens and controlled by legislation.
2. Public functions need not be operated by government but rather funded and regulated; what
'works' continues and is funded while ineffective programs are replaced by better programs.
3. We must always look at the consequences of government policy and action (particularly its
incentives and rewards; disincentives and punishments) and ask whether it will best meet the
ends that have been decided upon.
4. People and organizations should pay for the costs of irresponsible actions.
5. Welfare policies should serve to help those genuinely in need and to empower recipients to
escape from the culture of dependency.
6. THE TOUCHSTONE; IF GOVERNMENT FOCUSES ON ITS LIMITED ROLES RATHER THAN
TRYING TO BE ALL THINGS TO ALL PEOPLE, IT WILL BE ABLE TO EFFECTIVELY PERFORM
THOSE NECESSARY AND BENEFICIAL FUNCTIONS.
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